Persuasion - Peitho - an ancient Greek subject of great  importance, a mark of civilization NHCR 12
Note that Odysseus' embassy speech in Iliad though written around 750-700 BCE has structure later taught in rhetoric schools NHCR 14
logographos = speechwriter who does not deliver the oration (example: Isocrates)
Sophists - mostly foreigners in Athens teaching rhetorical skills for pay
Gorgias - see NHCR 18-19 for his contributions to new speaking style, memorization
Alcidamas - Note several of his arguments against memorizing and writing down speeches and the advantages of extemporaneous or impromptu style
    of speaking
ADDITIONAL NOTE: NHCR 24-26 Kennedy's 4 "Signs" of rhetorical consciousness in the Greek world that led to formal rules in 5th -4th c BCE
1. growing interest in forms of proof and argument, esp. based on probability and assumption of universally human characteristics (This is the foundation for INVENTION)
2. awareness of possibility of artistic unity in speeches and advantages of dividing them into logical parts (Foundation of ARRANGEMENT)
3. Experiment in rehtorical style and beginning to try to describe different speaking styles (Foundation of STYLE)
4. Beginning of the science of language and grammar, actually studying your own language (Foundation of DICTION, as part of STYLE)
* Extra "Sign" - increased use of writing expanded the influence of all learned arts and skills
 
 

Rhetorica ad Herennium - Roman handbook of 1st c BCE
Faculties or Canons of Rhetoric: Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, Delivery
Arrangement see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees) - look under ARRANGEMENT

Portions in ( ) are generally regarded as optional, others essential  

    1. Introduction (proemium/proiimion - exordium) - direct OR subtle approach
    2. Statement of Facts/Narration (diegesis - narratio) - exposition of background and factual
            details (sometimes unnecessary in delib)
    (3. Division (partitio/divisio) - speaker outlines what will follow, in accordance with what's
            been stated as the stasis, or point at issue in the case.)
    4. Proof (pistis - probatio, confirmatio)
    (5. Refutation (refutatio) - counterarguments considered)
    6. Conclusion/Epilogue (epilogos - peroratio) - summing up, amplification (see the 10
                commonplaces - RfCR 166-67, appeal to pity
        Doesn't just have to be at end - direct opening, narratio, strongest argument, conclusion

Cicero De partitione oratorica RfCR 192-193
    chronological, smaller to larger or vice versa, irregularity
    Prosecutor's order, Defendant's order - Epideictic and Pathetic arrangement

PLEASE read NHCR 60-61 on the problematic rhetoric terms in Aristotle: pistis, nonartistic proof,
        ethos, topos/topic and epideictic
Aristotle - For an orator to get conviction on ethical proof (ethos), speaker must show 1) good sense, 2) virtue, 3) goodwill
            Proof based on emotional proof (pathos) Any given emotion you wish to effect in your listener (e.g. anger), you must consider the 1) disposition
                    of mind that makes men angry, 2) persons with whom they are usually angry 3) occasions which give rise to anger (RfCR 129)Topics -
             Actions of men can be referred to 7 causes - chance, nature, compulsion, habit, reason, anger, desire - 7 causes defined at RfCR 138
amplification most suitable for demonstrative speeches since you are attributing beauty or importance to something, amplification is
                        often done by highlighting the superiority of the subject or individual being praised
                        Examples most suitable for deliberative speakers, since examining the past helps us judge the future
                        enthymemes - most suitable for judicial speeches, since the obscurity of the past lends itself to looking at causes and seeking demonstrative
                                proof
Invention - thinking out subject see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees) - look under INVENTION
    Stasis - identifying the question at issue
        Especially Hermagoras - mostly judicial based on logical proof
                Political questions - thesis - disputation that does not involve specific individuals or situations
                        Hypothesis - specific cases involving persons and occasions 7 attributes NHCR 97
      SEE NHCR 98-101
      A) Rational questions of a matter under judgment: Cicero calls this "equitable" quality
            1) Conjecturing about the FACT - Did X kill Y?  You did, I didn't.
            2) Consideration of the legal DEFINITION - Was the killing of Y by X murder or homicide? (You did; Yes, but it wasn't theft)
            3) Consideration of the QUALITY of the action (motivation, justification) - Was murder of Y by X justified by circumstances? (you did. But I
                        had to.               I didn't mean to)
                 Consider "absolute" question of justice or injustice: Defendant could claim action was appropriate, in accordance with custom, just in itself
                  OR look for mitigating circumstances "assumptive" stasis of quality:
                        a) bring a countercharge (he was killed, but he was a thief)
                        b) some advantage resulted or act prevented something worse happening
                        c) blame shifted to someone else
                        d) plea for forgiveness on basis of acting out of ignorance or by accident
            4) TRANSFERENCE of jurisidiction - objection to the process - Can this court try X?
                    Some cases lack stasis because of evidence problems, balance, etc. see NHCR 98
            See how each of these types of questioning is broken down with examples at NHCR 99-100
        B) Legal questions of a matter under judgment:
            1) By word and intent - should law be interpreted literally or in accordance with intention of the law's original framers
            2) Contrary laws - conflict or apparent conflict between 2 laws
            3) Ambiguous laws - unclear language, loopholes
            4) No law covering specific situation - speaker reasons from existing law

Aristotle
    syllogism, enthymeme - see Silva Rhetoricae (Flowers)
    3 categories for proof: moral character of speaker (ethos), putting hearer in a certain frame of
            mind (pathos), logical proof itself in the speech (logos) see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees)
    Signs - natural proofs, particular to universal and vice versa
    3 parts of a speech - speaker, subject, hearer
    3 speech types conform to 3 elements of time, past, present, future (see RfCR 124)
    3 speech types have 3 specific ends - Delib = expedient/harmful, Judic = just/unjust, Demon = honorable/disgraceful
    Themes for deliberative speech similar to list in Rhet ad Alex

8-16
rhetor    rhetorike  Socrates/Plato Gorgias 385 BCE  orator    oratoria

sophists

judicial (forensic)    - see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees)

deliberative/political (parliamentary)  - see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees)

epideictic/demonstrative (ceremonial) - see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees)

Five parts: 1) INVENTION (heuresis/inventio); 2) ARRANGEMENT (taxis/dispositio) - introduction, narration, proof, conclusion; 3) STYLE -  (lexis/elocutio); 4) MEMORY; 5) DELIVERY

9-9

Cicero Brutus written 46 BCE when Cicero was unable to write speeches or take on cases that he preferred
    Three pursuits of the orator: RfCR175 instruct the listener, give him pleasure, stir his emotions (teach, delight, move the audience)
Atticism - purity of expression, as viewed by Romans after the fluffy, emotional Hellenistic period - note RfCR 177 where problem of pinning term Attic
    on widely different speakers from Athens is condemned
Asianism - grand, odd word usage, appealing to audiences - short rhythmical (almost poetic) phrases rather than long involved sentences
    2 types according to Cicero - epigrammatic and pointed (pithy little sayings); other swift and impetuous, with ornate language

Quintilian - from Spain, teacher, professor of rhetoric during Roman Empire - first established "chair" of rhetoric assigned by emperor,
    Quintilian's main point about his students and the ideal orator is that they be morally good, ethical
 
 

2-18

Progymnasmata = preparatory exercises for use in public speeches - YOU MAY SKIP THE READING on Theon
        See especially Kennedy NHCR 203-207, Aphthonius RfCR 267-288 and see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees) - look under PROGYMNASMATA
        Since all 14 types are listed in each of these places, since Aphthonius and Kennedy break these down into their various parts, and since Aphthonius and
                Silva Rhetoricae  give specific examples of each in use, I will not copy here what they have done so well. I would recommend that you write
                down an outline of the various subcategories
                For example, Aphthonius 268, section 3
                Chreia - write the definition in your own words
                    Divisions (types): verbal, active, mixed (write brief explanation of each)
                    Headings (i.e., categories of formatting): encomium, paraphrase, statement of cause, from the contrary, comparison, example, ancient testimony
                                (quotes of others on same), epilogue - write down a definition or example of each that will help you)
 

2-13

Seneca the Elder and Declamation exercises - period of rule by Augustus (first Roman emperor)
        Controversia = a debate topic on a legal issue, these might be for school use as practice exercises, but they began to be used by adults for entertainment
            as almost game-like competitions, battles of wits. Another name given to these is DECLAMATION
        Note Kennedy's definitions of sententia (Greek gnome) NHCR 169 = proverb, pithy quote, nice one-liner well expressed; Division NHCR 169 =
                breaking down the subject into its different issues (uses stasistheory)color NHCR 170 - interpretation given by speaker to events or to the
                motivation of those involved - very closely related to stasis which see below.
Look at the first three short cases I gave you on your handout for good examples of these principles in Seneca
 

2-11

2-12 & 2-14
Progymnasmata = preparatory exercises for use in public speeches - YOU MAY SKIP THE READING on Theon
        See especially Kennedy NHCR 203-207, Aphthonius RfCR 267-288 and see Silva Rhetoricae (Trees) - look under PROGYMNASMATA
        Since all 14 types are listed in each of these places, since Aphthonius and Kennedy break these down into their various parts, and since Aphthonius and
                Silva Rhetoricae  give specific examples of each in use, I will not copy here what they have done so well. I would recommend that you write
                down an outline of the various subcategories
                For example, Aphthonius 268, section 3
                Chreia - write the definition in your own words
                    Divisions (types): verbal, active, mixed (write brief explanation of each)
                    Headings (i.e., categories of formatting): encomium, paraphrase, statement of cause, from the contrary, comparison, example, ancient testimony
                                (quotes of others on same), epilogue - write down a definition or example of each that will help you)
 
 
 
 

2-5 & 2-7